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In
the article titled "A Muslim's Jihad" in
the Winter 2001 edition of On Wisconsin, some
statements are made which are not entirely correct.
In particular, on page 37, it states that in the last
part of the first millennium and the first part of
the second, "Islam produced the world's leading
scientists, mathematicians, architects, and artists."
It may be considered only a minor discrepancy, but
this implies that all the leading scientists,
etc., were produced by Islam. The words "many
of" should be inserted between "produced"
and "the" to make the statement true. Another
statement is completely inaccurate. Muslims did not
invent algebra, our system of numbers, or the
concept of zero.
Approximately
2,200 years before Mohammed was born, Ahmes wrote
the Rhind papyrus, which described the Egyptian mathematics
system and their methods of multiplication, division,
and algebra (albeit in simple equations). He was followed
by Thales, Pythagorus, Euclid, Archimedes, Erasasthenes,
Ptolemy, Diophantus (known as "the father of
algebra"), Pappus, and Aryabhata the Elder, who
described the Indian numerical system, which used
the decimal system and the symbols 1 through 9 and
0.
About
820 A.D., Muhammad Ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi, a Muslim
from an area now called Uzbekistan, translated the
work of Aryabhata into Arabic. The Indian numerical
system, which the Arab mathematician called Hindustat,
became known as the Hindu-Arabic numerical system
and later as the Arabic number system after al-Khwarizmi's
work was translated into Latin. It was eventually
accepted as the European standard. Much of al-Khwarizmi's
work was written in a book titled al Kitab al-mukhatasar
fi hisab al-jabr wa'l-muqabalah. He also wrote
a treatise on algebra. It is from the titles of these
writings and his name that the words algebra
and algorithm are derived. As a result of his
work, al-Khwarizmi is known as the "second father
of algebra" and is regarded as the most outstanding
mathematician of his time. Arabic mathematicians also
translated Greek classics, including Euclid's Elements
and Ptolemy's Syntaxis Mathematica into Arabic.
While
it is evident that the people of Islam made a considerable
contribution in the fields of science, mathematics,
architecture, and art, to imply that all the leaders
in those fields practiced Islam and to claim that
they invented algebra, our present number system,
and the concept of zero is not only misleading, it
is not true. I realize that the concepts of right
and wrong have changed since I graduated in 1954,
but facts are still facts, even though the media modifies
them because of bias, political correctness, half-truths,
or expediency. Any publication representing the University
of Wisconsin should print facts. Statements that cannot
be backed up by reliable references should either
not be used or be identified as opinion, conjecture,
allegation, or assumption.
Attached
to this letter are a brief chronology of mathematical
history, the names of three references, and the source
of other references used as a basis for my statements
made above.
A.
D. Laska '54
Richardson, Texas
A
Brief Chronology of the Work of Notable Mathematicians
and Documents Prior to 900 A.D.
[By approximate year, author, summary of work]
1800
B.C.
Babylonians
Used what is known today as the Pythagorean Theorem
1650
B.C.
Ahmed
Rhind papyrus named for Alexander Rhind, who translated
the Hieroglyphics in the 19th century. Described the
methods of multiplication, division, and algebra used
in the Egyptian mathematical system.
876
B.C.
Author unknown
First known reference to the usage of the symbol of
zero is made in India.
582
B.C.
Thales of Miletos (Greek)
Invents deductive mathematics
500
B.C.
Pythagoras of Samos. (Greek)
Pythagorean theorem
300
B.C.
Euclid of Alexandria (Greek)
Wrote Stoicheia or Elements, thirteen
books on mathematics. Proves the Pythagorean theorem.
230
B.C.
Eratasthenes of Alexandria (Greek)
Developed system for determining prime numbers.
230
B.C.
Archimedes of Syracuse (Greek)
Calculates value of pi. Provides equations for solving
the areas and volumes of curved surfaces and solids.
140
A.D.
Ptolemy (Greek)
Wrote Syntaxis Mathematica
250
A.D.
Diophantus of Alexandria (Greek)
Wrote thirteen books on mathematics titled Arithmetica.
Described as the "father of algebra." Influenced
al-Khwarizmi in his work.
320
A.D.
Pappus of Alexandria (Greek)
Summarizes knowledge of Greek mathematicians.
Fourth
century
Author unknown
Bakshali manuscript, written in Brahmi (a script in
the Sanskrit language) in India, used a number system
with base 10, and symbols of 1 through 9 and 0
499
A.D.
Aryabhata the Elder (Hindu/India)
Wrote a document titled "Aryabhatiya," which
covered algebra, geometry, astronomy, and the Indian
numerical system. The first 121 verses were written
in Sanskrit, the next ten in Geetika meter, and the
last 108 verses in Aryavrata meter. In this document,
he calculated pi more accurately than the Greeks.
Later, Indian mathematicians calculated the value
to nine decimal places. Greek influence is evident
in the document.
820
A.D.
Abu Ja'far Muhammad Ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi (Muslim/Uzbekistan)
Translated the work described in "Aryabhatiya"
into Arabic in a book titled al-Kitab al-mukhatasar
fi hisab al-jabr wa'l-muqubala (The Compendious Book
on Calculation by Completion and Balancing). The
complete book was based on Greek, Hindu, and Babylonian
sources. The Indian number system was called Hindustat
by Arab mathematicians and became known as the Hindu-Arabic
numeral system. After the book was translated into
Latin in 1145 by Robert of Chester, it was introduced
to Europe. The system then became known as the Arabic
numeral system and eventually became the European
standard. Al-Khwarizmi also wrote a book on astronomy
and a treatise on algebra titled "Treatise on
Calculation with the Hindu Numerals." No known
copies of the Arabic version exist today.
Note:
Many of the Egyptian, Babylonian, and Greek writings
were placed in the Great Library of Alexandria. It
was supposedly closed and partially destroyed in 391
A.D. by Coptic Christians, and the rest of the library
was burned and completely demolished in about 640
A.D. by the invading Arab General Amrou (Amr?) under
the orders of Caliph Omar (Umar?). However, it is
claimed by some that the library was completely destroyed
in 391. If that is true, how did several documents
find their way to Byzantine and Roman scholars and
in the fifth century? Some documents were eventually
placed in the Vatican Library. It has been established
that all the buildings were in ruins in 650 A.D. One
can only guess how advanced the present day fields
of science and mathematics would be if the library
still existed.
Sources
Biographical Encyclopedia of Mathematicians,
Marshall Cavendish, publisher (1999).
Math & Mathematicians, Leonard C. Bruno,
1999 edition.
Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, Edward
Gibbon.
The library at the University of Texas at Dallas under
biographies and the histories of mathematics and histories
of that era.
City of Richardson (Texas) Public Library under the
same subjects as above.
